Roles of other RNA modifications in normal and malignant hematopoiesis. In addition to m⁶A, other RNA modifications, such as A-to-I editing, m⁵C, and pseudouridine (ψ), are implicated in normal and malignant hematopoiesis. Specifically, ψ synthase is essential for efficient HSC differentiation, and ψ is highly excreted in urine in AML and chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). Increased levels of m⁵C and its writers confer chemoresistance to MDS/AML cells, m⁵C writers are positively associated with MDS/AML progression, and m⁵C eraser TET2 promotes infection-induced myelopoiesis. The writer for A-to-I editing is required for maintenance of HSCs and survival of hematopoietic progenitor cell (HPCs), whereas the same writer promotes transformation of myeloid progenitors into LSCs/LICs and enhances LSC/LIC self-renewal activity. The level of A-to-I editing is positively correlated with CML progression.