Inflammation in SCD. SCD has been recognized as a chronic inflammatory disease. Multiple cell types and molecules are involved in its inflammatory pathways. Hemolysis of RBCs leads to the release of heme into the circulation, which can activate endothelial cells through the TLR4 pathway and induce PlGF release from RBCs. PlGF activates monocytes, leading to the production of proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-1β. The adhesion of platelets or sickle RBCs can also activate endothelial cells, producing increased expression of adhesion molecules including ICAM-1, VCAM-1, P-selectin, and E-selectin, and thus promoting the recruitment of neutrophils. iNKT cells exhibit an activated phenotype and contribute to pulmonary dysfunction in SCD by producing IFN-γ and inducing CXCR3 chemokines. Platelets can form aggregates with circulating leukocytes, including neutrophils and monocytes. Activated neutrophils roll and adhere to the endothelium, and initiate VOC by capturing sickle RBCs. Heme can also induce NET formation, which promotes acute pulmonary injury in SCD. HMGB1, high mobility group box 1; iNKT cell, invariant natural killer T cell.